1.1 Separation of powers and checks and balances
Although no single causal factor can cause democratic backsliding, some elements may inform parliamentarians that their country is regressing:
For democracy to work effectively, all three branches of government - the legislative, the executive, and the judiciary - must be independent and work in their domain of influence to protect fundamental human rights and freedoms and respect principles of transparency, good governance, and accountability, and the rule of law. The Constitution of each country determines the interplay among branches. Each branch of government has specific powers to check the other branches to prevent one from becoming too powerful and undermining the others.
The Latimer principles1 for Commonwealth countries provide a framework for governments, parliaments, and courts to implement fundamental values, which can be emulated and tailored in countries outside the Commonwealth.
In 2020, the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association (CPA) published its Model Law,2 seeking to create Parliamentary Service Commissions, which would be responsible for setting policies, guidelines, and strategies to enhance the functions and performance of Parliaments and manage risk and financial transparency. They would also provide clarity to other institutions, including the executive, Members of Parliament, staff, and the public, as to who is responsible, accountable, and answerable for the management and governance of parliament.
An effective parliament carries out satisfactorily its core functions of representation, legislation, and oversight, having the legal, administrative, and financial capacity to do so and using this capacity in practice. It also carries out a vision and strategy, transparently managing its resources and evaluating its performance.
During emergencies, power tends to concentrate in the executive branch of the state. Authoritarian governments exploit crises to subvert human rights and undermine democratic institutions by designing oppressive rules that favor their ideological priorities. It is paramount that democratic governments do not use crises to unilaterally impose decrees without due consideration to the separation of powers.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, parliaments faced many challenges. Some parliaments were under attack. In some countries, the executive branch and the security and armed forces of the state perpetrated violence against legislators and civilians and overstepped their legal authority. Governments worldwide used the pandemic to justify taking extra powers beyond what is reasonably necessary to protect public health. In addition, emergency powers interfered with the legislative and judicial branches, and restrictions were severe against opposition members. Autocratic regimes used the pandemic as an excuse to oppress political opponents further and curtail freedoms and rights.
Case studies
1.2 Independence of the Judiciary9
Democracy cannot exist absent the rule of law, and there is no rule of law without an independent judiciary enshrined in the Constitution and guaranteed by the state. All democratic institutions must respect and observe the independence of the judiciary. Judges primarily interpret laws issued by the Legislative branch and perform the duties of judicial office impartially and diligently.
The judiciary decides on facts in accordance with the law, without any restrictions, improper influences, inducements, pressures, threats, or interferences, direct or indirect, from any quarter or for any reason. The judiciary has jurisdiction over issues of a judicial nature and exclusive authority over matters within its competence as defined by law.
Unwarranted interference in the judicial process or courts’ decision is inappropriate and illegal. There shall not be any improper or unjustified interference with the judicial process, nor shall judicial decisions by the courts be subject to revision. This principle is without prejudice to judicial review, mitigation, or commutation by competent authorities of sentences imposed by the judiciary as established by the law.
The principle of independence of the judiciary entitles and requires it to ensure that judicial proceedings are fair and respect the parties’ rights in accordance with due process standards. States shall provide their judiciary with adequate resources to perform its mandate. However, some states have subverted their judiciary and converted it into a repressive machine, doing the bidding of the executive branch against its opponents. An emblematic case of such persecution is that of Leila de Lima.
Case studies
1.3 Prosecutorial Independence and accountability
Prosecutorial independence can mean:
- Independence of the prosecution as an institution from other organs or
- Independence of the individual prosecutor, where it exists.
Even where the prosecution as an institution is independent, the prosecution may be organized along hierarchical lines, subject to instructions from a more senior colleague. In other systems, the prosecution is based on or a part of the judiciary.
For example, in Western European countries, prosecutors institutionally depend on the executive branch, an accepted practice. However, recognition of the problems related to such prosecutorial dependence is growing. The current trend is going toward increasing the independence of prosecution services from the executive, especially in transitional democracies. In many countries in transition, the independence of judicial and prosecutorial authorities is seen as an integral part of the broader transition from authoritarianism to open, democratic societies.12
Case studies
1.4 Attacks on civil and political rights
Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals’ freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure one’s ability to participate in the civil and political life of society and the state. The rights include the protection of people’s physical and mental integrity, life, and safety; protection from discrimination on grounds such as sex, race, sexual orientation, national origin, color, age, political affiliation, ethnicity, social class, religion, and disability; and individual rights such as privacy and the freedom of thought, speech, religion, press, assembly, and movement.
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) aims to ensure the protection of the aforementioned rights, where countries that have ratified the covenant undertake to respect, protect, and fulfill these rights. The Human Rights Committee periodically examines reports on implementing the legal obligations of countries that are States Parties to the ICCPR.
Targeted rights under the ICCPR were under threat by many governments during the global pandemic, especially (1) restrictions on speech and assembly, (2) intrusions on privacy, (3) modifications to or delays in electoral processes, and (4) denials of justice and fair trial.21
Although the rights contained in the ICCPR are a part of jus cogens (peremptory norms of general international law from which no derogation is permitted), states violated them.
Right of Speech and Peaceful Assembly
ICCPR Article 21 provides that the “right of peaceful assembly” allows restrictions on the exercise of this right only to the extent they are necessary “in the interests of national security or public safety, public order, the protection of public health or morals or the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.” In General Comment No. 37, the Human Rights Committee further clarifies duties and rights under Article 21 and establishes that States Parties are not to derogate from this provision to restrict peaceful assembly “if they can attain their objectives by imposing restrictions in terms of Article 21.”
Case studies
What can legislators do to safeguard civil and political rights?
- Introduce and approve legislation and policies that advance protections for vulnerable communities disproportionately affected by human rights violations;
- Introduce and approve legislation and policies that increase support for human rights defenders:
- Question the executive branch on the different policies to prevent and address civil and political rights violations;
- In the national budget, allocate adequate educational resources so the youth may be aware of their rights;
- Denounce violations in your country, region, and elsewhere, especially authoritarian behaviors;
- When engaging with all stakeholders, especially within your political party and with your constituents, tirelessly defend the virtues of democracy;
- Relentlessly defend democratic values and principles in multilateral fora and countries or regions at a turning point; and
- Request PGA technical assistance.
1.5 Closing space for civil society organizations: foreign agent laws
Civil society is fundamental to a vibrant and inclusive democracy. It improves the culture of accountability and transparency, strengthens government effectiveness and responsiveness, and increases public trust in government.23
According to the Office of the High Commission for Human Rights (OHCHR), civic space is the environment enabling civil society to play a role in our societies’ political, economic, and social life. It allows individuals and groups to contribute to policy-making that affects their lives, including by:
- Accessing information;
- Engaging in dialogue;
- Expressing dissent or disagreement; and
- Joining together to express their views.
Although regional and international instruments protect civic space, parliaments and parliamentarians must ensure that these international standards are implemented in the domestic legal and policy realms.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is the fundamental global standard that outlines an international obligation to protect the rights and freedoms of citizens. Several regional instruments complement this global standard, including:
- The European Convention on Human Rights, the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights
- The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights
- The Asian Human Rights Charter
- The American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man
While each of these regional instruments protects a wide range of civic freedoms and human rights, the vibrancy of civic space and the success of civil society organizations (CSOs) operating therein largely depends on an enabling environment at the country level.
What Can Legislators Do?
Parliaments, through law-making and the domestication of relevant international laws and standards, can:
- Safeguard and expand civic space through parliament’s law-making function: Parliaments are responsible for ensuring that domestic laws comply with international commitments and standards, such as freedom of expression, peaceful assembly, freedom of association, right to privacy and non-discrimination, and others as provided in the international laws and standards. An example is the significant progress in freedom of information (FOI) laws across Africa. Though levels of implementation vary, many African countries now have legal provisions supporting FOI (UNESCO 2021).24
- Safeguard and expand civic space through effective oversight and parliamentary oversight: Oversight provides an essential check on government powers and protects civic space. Effective oversight will not only help protect civic space, but it can also improve the quality of governance and help parliament achieve its foundational objective of ensuring government actions and policies reflect and represent the needs of the citizens. Parliaments can deploy different oversight tools such as summons, interpellations, and votes of no confidence and impeachment against the government for human rights violations or actions that restrict or constrain civic space. In 2022, the Ugandan Parliament proactively summoned the prime minister and party leaders to deliberate and find solutions to the country’s perpetual allegations of human rights violations.25
- Safeguard and expand civic space through meaningful public engagement in parliamentary processes: This can send strong signals that parliaments respect space for public discourse and that all voices should be heard in the functioning of the legislature. According to the Global Parliamentary Report of 2022, parliaments can engage with CSOs and the public in the following areas (IPU and UNDP 2022: 21):
- Information: keeping citizens and civil society well informed on parliamentary business
- Education: increasing citizen understanding of parliaments and the country’s parliamentary process
- Communication: introducing and establishing channels and avenues for interaction between citizens and parliamentarians
- Consultation: building on collective knowledge to inform parliamentary work and processes
- Participation: actively involving CSOs and the public in parliamentary processes
Parliaments can also play a role in the closing of civic space. Though most restrictive actions against civic space are typically attributed to the executive, parliaments can also be enablers and perpetrators of civic space restrictions (Keutgen and Dodsworth 2020; Lorchi, Onken, and Sombatpoonsiri 2021). Parliament’s contribution to the closing of civic space relates to the extent to which they enact restrictive laws and do not hold governments to account for actions that restrict civic space. Hence, civil society representatives must advocate for defending and strengthening civic space and ensure that parliamentarians are aware of the value of inclusive citizen and civil society participation in democratic processes.
Building the knowledge, awareness, and capacity of parliamentarians around tackling civic space issues will ensure effective parliaments are able to prevent government threats to civic space. Awareness-raising engagement with parliamentarians exposes them to evidence based on research and data. Building the capacity of even one MP strengthens the parliamentary institution. According to the Inter-Parliamentary Union and UNDP, “effective parliamentary oversight is a rigorous, constructive and evidence-based process designed to improve all aspects of society and national governance” (IPU & UNDP 2017).
Another aspect of the closing space is foreign agent laws. Many countries continue to restrict the registration of LGBTQI+ organizations, whether through laws impeding the operations of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) - including so-called foreign agent laws - or through discriminatory practices targeting organizations working on gender and sexuality. Where LGBTQI+ organizations cannot register openly, they often devise other strategies, such as registering under general human rights, women’s rights, health, youth, or development themes. Civil society organizations sometimes register as for-profit or not-for-profit companies, which may require fewer bureaucratic obstacles than NGO registration.26
Democratic principles and institutions foster the trust of the public. Parliamentarians are responsible for setting up the mechanisms that will ensure that the trust put in them by their constituents remains. The power resides with ‘we the people,’ and it is entrusted to representatives who translate the people’s will into laws and policies.
Parliamentarians can consult tools from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), such as the Trust Survey Report, to understand where parliaments stand in a given country and, more importantly, discuss the drivers of trust. “[T]rust is a fragile societal asset. While it takes time to establish, it can be lost quickly. Analyzing what drives trust in public institutions and what actions are required to preserve it is essential for ensuring public governance systems deliver policies that improve people’s lives.”
Footnotes:
1 Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, Commonwealth (Latimer House) Principles on the Three Branches of Government, November 2023.
2 Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, Model Law for Independent Parliaments, 2020.
3 Parliamentarians for Global Action, Urgent Action Alert 2: El Salvador, June 2020.
4 Parliamentarians for Global Action, Malaysian Government Must Respect Constitutional Rights of Opposition Legislators, August 2021.
5 Parliamentarians for Global Action, Bras de Fer between Ecuador’s Executive and National Assembly: Mutual Destruction, 25 May 2023.
6 Parliamentarians for Global Action, Tunisian authorities must respect democratic institutions, August 2021.
7 Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), Indicators for Democratic Parliaments Based on SDG Targets 16.6 and 16.7.
8 Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), How to use the indicators – Assessment Guidance.
9 United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary, adopted on 6 September 1985.
10 Amnesty International, Philippines: Leila de Lima’s acquittal a long-overdue step towards justice, May 2023.
11 Human Rights Watch, Renewed Attacks on Political Opposition, April 2023.
12 Open Society Institute Sofia, Promoting Prosecutorial Accountability, Independence and Effectiveness, 2008.
13 Mariyam Sahula, Areef Ahmed Naseer and Md. Ershadul Karim, Legal System and Research of Maldives.
14 European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission), The Independence of Judges and Prosecutors: Perspectives and Challenges, 15 March 2011.
15 United Nations Guidelines on the Role of Prosecutors (adopted by Eighth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, Havana, Aug. 27-Sept. 7, 1990), U.N. Doc. A/CONF.144/28/Rev.1 at 189 (1990).
16 Council of Europe Committee of Ministers Recommendation 19/2000 [Rec. 2000/19] of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the role of public prosecution in the criminal justice system (adopted Oct. 6, 2000).
17 Registrar of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Standards of Professional Conduct for Prosecution Counsel.
18 International Criminal Court, Code of Conduct for the Office of the Prosecutor, [Date of entry into force: 5 September 2013].
19 International Association of Prosecutors, Standards of Professional Responsibility and Statement of the Essential Duties and Rights of Prosecutors adopted Apr. 23, 1999.
20 American Bar Association, Prosecution Function, Fourth Edition (2017) of the Criminal Justice Standard for the Prosecution Function.
21 Oona A. Hathaway, Mark Stevens and Preston Lim, COVID-19, and International Law Series: Human Rights Law – Civil and Political Rights, Just Security, 24 November 2020.
22 Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023 Report.
23 David Olusegun Sotola, Transparency International Anti-Corruption Helpdesk Answer Parliaments and Civic Space, 16 August 2023.
24 Ibid.
25 Parliament of the Republic of Uganda, Tayebwa summons Premier, Ministers over human rights violations.
26 Outright, The Global State of LGBTIQ Organizing: The Right to Register and the Freedom to Operate, September 2023.